Chapter 7: Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies language use in context — how meaning is conveyed beyond the literal words, depending on the situation, speaker, and listener.
7.1 Language in Context
Language does not exist in isolation; its meaning depends on the context in which it is used. Context includes:
- Physical context: Where the conversation takes place.
- Linguistic context: Previous discourse or text.
- Social context: Relationship between speaker and listener.
- Cultural context: Shared knowledge and norms.
Pragmatics explores how speakers use language effectively and how listeners interpret meaning in context.
7.2 Speech Acts
Speech acts are actions performed via utterances. When we speak, we don’t just say things; we do things with our words.
Types of Speech Acts:
1. Locutionary act: The act of producing meaningful utterance (the actual sentence and its literal meaning).
2. Illocutionary act: The intended function of the utterance (what the speaker aims to achieve). For example, making a request, giving an order, asking a question.
3. Perlocutionary act: The actual effect on the listener (such as persuading, frightening, or amusing).
Common Illocutionary Acts:
- Assertives: Statements or assertions (e.g., "It is raining.")
- Directives: Commands or requests (e.g., "Please close the door.")
- Commissives: Promises or threats (e.g., "I will call you tomorrow.")
- Expressives: Expressions of feelings or attitudes (e.g., "I’m sorry.")
- Declarations: Utterances that bring about a change in the world (e.g., "You are fired.")
7.3 Implicature and Presupposition
Implicature
- Implicature refers to what is suggested or implied by an utterance, though not explicitly stated.
- It relies on the principle that speakers usually follow conversational maxims (Grice’s Maxims):
- Quantity: Provide as much information as needed, no more, no less.
- Quality: Be truthful.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Manner: Be clear and orderly.
Example:
- A: "Did you finish the report?"
- B: "I have been very busy
with other projects."
B’s reply implicates that the report is likely not finished, though not explicitly stated.
Presupposition
- A presupposition is an implicit assumption that must be true for the utterance to make sense.
- It is background information taken for granted.
Example:
- "John stopped
smoking."
Presupposes: John used to smoke.
7.4 Deixis
Deixis refers to words and phrases that cannot be fully understood without context, as their meaning depends on the speaker’s and listener’s situation.
Types of deixis:
- Person deixis: Refers to participants in the conversation (e.g., I, you, he, she).
- Place deixis: Refers to location (e.g., here, there, above).
- Time deixis: Refers to time (e.g., now, then, tomorrow).
- Discourse deixis: Refers to parts of the discourse (e.g., this, that in "This is interesting").
- Social deixis: Reflects social relationships, status, or politeness (e.g., honorifics like sir, madam).
Summary Table
|
Concept |
Description |
Example |
|
Language in Context |
Meaning depends on situation and speaker-listener relationship |
Understanding "Can you open the window?" as request or question |
|
Speech Acts |
Actions performed by utterances |
Asking, promising, apologizing |
|
Implicature |
Suggested meaning beyond literal words |
Saying "It’s cold here" to imply "Close the window" |
|
Presupposition |
Assumptions necessary for utterance to make sense |
"John stopped smoking" presupposes he smoked before |
|
Deixis |
Words needing context for interpretation |
"I" means different people depending on who speaks |
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