Chapter 6: Semantics

 

  

 

 

 

Chapter 6:             Semantics

Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies meaning in language — how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning.

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6.1 Meaning in Language

Meaning is the core function of language. Semantics explores:

• What meanings are expressed by words and sentences.
• How meanings combine in phrases and sentences.
• How context influences meaning.

There are different types of meaning:

• Lexical meaning: Meaning of individual words.
• Grammatical meaning: Meaning arising from grammatical structures.
• Pragmatic meaning: Meaning derived from context and speaker intention.

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6.2 Sense vs. Reference

Sense

• The sense of a word is its inherent meaning or concept.
• It is the mental representation or idea associated with the word.
• Example: The sense of dog includes "a domesticated, four-legged, barking animal."

Reference

• The reference of a word is the actual object or entity in the real world that the word refers to.
• Example: The word dog can refer to a specific dog like your pet or any dog in reality.
• Sense is about the concept, while reference is about the real-world entity.

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6.3 Semantic Roles

Semantic roles (also called thematic roles) describe the functions of different participants in the events described by sentences. Common roles include:

Role	Description	Example
Agent	The doer of the action	John ate the apple.
Patient	The entity affected by action	John ate the apple.
Experiencer	Entity experiencing a sensation	Mary felt cold.
Instrument	Means by which action is done	He cut the bread with a knife.
Location	Place where action occurs	She lives in London.
Goal	Endpoint of movement	He walked to the park.

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6.4 Lexical Semantics and Word Relationships

Lexical semantics studies the meanings of words and the relationships among them.

6.4.1 Synonymy

• Synonyms are words with similar or identical meanings.
• Examples: big / large, start / begin.
• Synonymy is rarely perfect; there may be subtle differences in usage or connotation.

6.4.2 Antonymy

• Antonyms are words with opposite meanings.
• Types of antonyms:
• Gradable antonyms: Opposites on a scale (e.g., hot / cold).
• Complementary antonyms: Binary opposites with no middle ground (e.g., alive / dead).
• Relational antonyms: Pairs that describe a relationship from opposite perspectives (e.g., buy / sell).

6.4.3 Hyponymy

• A hyponym is a more specific term under a broader category called a hypernym.
• Example: rose, daisy, and tulip are hyponyms of flower.
• Hyponymy shows hierarchical relationships in vocabulary.

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Summary Table

Concept	Description	Example
Sense	Mental concept of a word	The idea of dog
Reference	Actual entity in the real world	A particular dog
Agent	Doer of an action	John (in John ate the apple)
Patient	Entity affected by action	The apple
Synonymy	Words with similar meanings	big / large
Antonymy	Words with opposite meanings	hot / cold
Hyponymy	Specific word under a general category	rose under flower