Chapter 3: Phonology
Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Unlike phonetics, which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, phonology focuses on how sounds function within a particular language or languages.
3.1 Phonemes and Allophones
Phonemes
Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning in a language. They are abstract mental representations of sounds. For example, in English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because they distinguish words like pat /pæt/ and bat /bæt/.
Phonemes are language-specific; a sound that is a phoneme in one language may not be in another.
Allophones
Allophones are variant pronunciations of the same phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word. They usually occur in specific phonetic contexts.
- Example: The English phoneme /p/ has different allophones:
- Aspirated [pʰ] at the beginning of pin [pʰɪn]
- Unaspirated [p] in spin [spɪn]
- Both are perceived as the same phoneme /p/ by native speakers.
Allophones are often conditioned by phonological environment, such as surrounding sounds or word position.
3.2 Minimal Pairs
Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ by exactly one phoneme and have different meanings. They are crucial for identifying phonemes in a language because they prove that a sound difference can change meaning.
- Examples of minimal pairs:
- bat /bæt/ vs. pat /pæt/ (differ by /b/ and /p/)
- ship /ʃɪp/ vs. sheep /ʃiːp/ (differ by vowel length and quality)
Minimal pairs are a foundational tool in phonological analysis.
3.3 Syllable Structure
A syllable is a unit of pronunciation containing a single vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants. Syllable structure is described in terms of its parts:
- Onset: The consonant(s) before the vowel. Example: /str/ in street
- Nucleus: The vowel or syllabic sound at the core of the syllable. Example: /iː/ in street
- Coda: The consonant(s) following the vowel. Example: /t/ in street
The nucleus and coda together are called the rhyme.
Syllable Template
Syllables
can often be represented as:
(C)(C)(C) V (C)(C)(C)
- Where C = consonant, V = vowel
- English allows up to three consonants in onset and coda clusters, as in spring (/sprɪŋ/) and texts (/tɛksts/).
Importance of Syllable Structure
- Influences phonological rules
- Affects stress patterns and rhythm
- Determines permissible sound combinations in a language
3.4 Phonological Rules and Processes
Phonological rules explain how phonemes are pronounced differently (allophones) in different contexts. These rules are unconscious and govern normal speech production.
Common Phonological Processes
1.
Assimilation
A sound becomes similar to a neighboring sound to ease articulation.
Assimilation can be progressive, regressive, or reciprocal.
- Example: In English input /ˈɪnpʊt/, the /n/ often becomes [m] before the bilabial /p/, so it sounds like [ˈɪmpʊt].
2.
Deletion
A sound is omitted, often in rapid or casual speech.
- Example: friendship often loses the /d/ sound, pronounced as [ˈfrɛnʃɪp].
3.
Insertion
(Epenthesis)
An extra sound is added to break up difficult clusters.
- Example: Some speakers pronounce athlete as [ˈæθəˌliːt] with an extra vowel.
4.
Metathesis
Two sounds swap places.
- Example: Some dialects pronounce ask as aks.
5.
Flapping
In American English, the /t/ and /d/ between vowels become a quick tap sound
[ɾ].
- Examples: butter [ˈbʌɾər], ladder [ˈlæɾər].
Summary
Phonology studies how sounds are organized and function in language. Understanding phonemes, allophones, minimal pairs, syllable structures, and phonological processes is essential for analyzing any language's sound system.
